Cervical cancer develops in the cells of the cervix, the lower, narrow part of the uterus that connects the uterus to the vagina. It usually develops gradually, beginning with abnormal changes in cervical cells that may progress to cancer if they are not detected and treated.[1]
Persistent infection with high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) causes almost all cervical cancers. Although HPV infection is very common and most infections resolve spontaneously, persistent infection with high-risk HPV types can cause precancerous changes that may eventually develop into cervical cancer.[2]
Cervical cancer is largely preventable through HPV vaccination, regular screening and treatment of precancerous lesions. It is also highly treatable when detected at an early stage and managed appropriately.[2]
Global Impact
Cervical cancer remains a major cause of cancer among women worldwide. In 2024, approximately 604,000 women weren diagnosed with cervical cancer globally and around 280,000 died from the disease. It was the fifth most commonly diagnosed cancer among women worldwide.[2]
The burden of cervical cancer is disproportionately concentrated in low- and middle-income countries, where approximately 90% of both cervical cancer cases and deaths occur. Differences in access to HPV vaccination, screening, early diagnosis and appropriate treatment contribute substantially to these inequalities.[2,3]
Impact in India
Cervical cancer is one of the leading cancers among women in India. According to IARC GLOBOCAN 2022 estimates, approximately 127,526 new cases of cervical cancer occurred in India, accounting for 9.0% of all new cancer cases in the country.[4]
Among Indian women, cervical cancer accounted for approximately 17.7% of all new cancer cases, making it the second most commonly diagnosed cancer among women in India, after breast cancer. It was also among the leading causes of cancer-related deaths among Indian women.[4]
According to the ICMR–National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP), an estimated 75,209 new cases of cervical cancer were projected in India in 2020, accounting for 5.4% of all cancer cases. The number was projected to increase to approximately 85,241 cases by 2025.[5]
Signs and Symptoms
Early cervical cancer often does not cause noticeable symptoms. Symptoms generally become more apparent as the disease progresses.[6]
Common signs and symptoms include:
- Vaginal bleeding after sexual intercourse
- Vaginal bleeding between menstrual periods
- Vaginal bleeding after menopause
- Menstrual periods that are heavier or longer than usual
- Watery, bloody or strong-smelling vaginal discharge
- Pelvic pain
- Pain during sexual intercourse.[6]
Advanced cervical cancer may cause difficulty or pain during urination or bowel movements, blood in the urine or rectal bleeding, persistent backache, abdominal pain, swelling of the legs and fatigue.[6]
Treatment Modalities
Treatment of cervical cancer depends on the stage of the disease, tumour characteristics, overall health and individual circumstances. Treatment may involve surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy or immunotherapy.[7]
i. Surgery: Surgery is commonly used for selected early-stage cervical cancers. Depending on the extent of disease, surgical treatment may range from removal of abnormal cervical tissue to removal of the cervix or uterus. Fertility- preserving procedures may be possible in selected patients with early-stage disease.[7]
ii. Radiation Therapy: Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to destroy cancer cells. Cervical cancer may be treated using external-beam radiation therapy and internal radiation therapy (brachytherapy). Radiation may be used alone or in combination with chemotherapy, particularly for locally advanced disease.[7]
iii. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy uses medicines to destroy or control cancer cells. It is commonly administered together with radiation therapy for locally advanced cervical cancer and may also be used for recurrent or metastatic disease.[7,8]
iv. Targeted Therapy: Targeted therapies act on specific molecules or pathways involved in cancer growth and spread. They may be used in selected patients with persistent, recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer.[7]
v. Immunotherapy: Immunotherapy helps the immune system recognize and attack cancer cells. It may be used for selected patients with locally advanced, recurrent or metastatic cervical cancer, depending on the characteristics and stage of the disease.[7,8]
Prevention and Early Detection
Cervical cancer is one of the most preventable cancers. HPV vaccination can prevent infections with high-risk HPV types responsible for cervical cancer, while regular screening can identify precancerous cervical changes before they develop into invasive cancer.[2]
Cervical cancer screening may include HPV testing and cervical cytology (Pap testing). Detecting and treating precancerous lesions can prevent the development of cervical cancer, while cancers detected at an early stage are generally easier to treat.[9]
References
1. National Cancer Institute. What is cervical cancer?. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute; 2023 Jun 15. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical
2. World Health Organization. Cervical cancer. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2026 Jul 3. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/cervical-cancer
3. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Cervical cancer. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer. Available from: https://www.iarc.who.int/cancer-type/cervical-cancer/
4. International Agency for Research on Cancer. Global Cancer Observatory: India fact sheet. GLOBOCAN 2022. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2024 [cited 2026 Sep 9]. Available from: https://gco.iarc.who.int/media/globocan/factsheets/populations/356-india-fact-sheet.pdf
5. Indian Council of Medical Research-National Centre for Disease Informatics and Research (ICMR-NCDIR). Report of National Cancer Registry Programme 2020. Bengaluru: ICMR-NCDIR; 2020. Available from: https://www.ncdirindia.org/All_Reports/Report_2020/resources/NCRP_2020_2012_16.pdf
6. National Cancer Institute. Cervical cancer symptoms. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute; 2022 Oct 13. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/symptoms
7. National Cancer Institute. Cervical cancer treatment. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute; 2025 Apr 3. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/treatment
8. National Cancer Institute. Cervical cancer treatment by stage. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/treatment/by-stage
9. National Cancer Institute. Cervical cancer screening. Bethesda (MD): National Cancer Institute. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/screening